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CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Electronics and Design1

1.1 Introduction1

1.2 History of Electronics1

1.3 Electronic Systems3

Sensors3

Actuators3

1.4 Electronic Signals and Notation4

Analog-to-Digital Converters5

Digital-to-Analog Converters6

Notation6

1.5 Classifications of Electronic Systems7

1.6 Specifications of Electronic Systems9

Transient Specifications9

Distortion10

Frequency Specifications10

dc and Small-Signal Specifications11

1.7 Design of Electronic Systems12

1.8 Design of Electronic Circuits14

Analysis versus Design14

Definition of Engineering Design15

The Circuit-Level Design Process16

Benefits of Studying from a Design Perspective19

Types of Design Projects20

Design Report21

1.9 Electronic Devices21

Semiconductor Diodes21

Bipolar Junction Transistors22

Field-Effect Transistors22

REFERENCES26

PROBLEMS26

CHAPTER 2 Diodes27

2.1 Introduction27

2.2 Ideal Diodes28

2.3 Transfer Characteristic of Diode Circuits31

2.4 Practical Diodes32

2.5 Physical Operation of Junction Diodes32

Diode Junction32

Forward-Biased Condition34

Reverse-Biased Condition34

Breakdown Condition34

2.6 Characteristic of Practical Diodes35

2.7 Determination of Diode Constants37

2.8 Temperature Effects39

2.9 Analysis of Practical Diode Circuits41

Graphical Method42

Approximate Method42

Iterative Method42

2.10 Modeling of Practical Diodes44

Constant-Drop de Model44

Piecewise Linear dc Model44

Low-Frequency ac Model46

High-Frequency ac Model51

PSpice/SPICE Diode Model53

2.11 Zener Diodes56

Zener Regulator57

Design of a Zener Regulator59

Zener Limiters62

Temperature Effects on Zener Diodes65

2.12 Light-Emitting Diodes66

2.13 Schottky Barrier Diodes66

2.14 Power Rating67

2.15 Diode Data Sheets69

SUMMARY73

REFERENCES73

REVIEW QUESTIONS73

PROBLEMS74

CHAPTER 3 Applications of Diodes81

3.1 Introduction81

3.2 Diode Rectifiers81

Single-Phase Half-Wave Rectifiers82

Single-Phase Full-Wave Center-Tapped Rectifiers89

Single-Phase Full-Wave Bridge Rectifiers94

3.3 Output Filters for Rectifiers99

L-Filters99

C-Filters102

LC-Filters106

3.4 Clippers109

Parallel Clippers109

Series Clippers110

3.5 Clamping Circuits112

Fixed-Shift Clampers112

Variable-Shift Clampers113

3.6 Peak Detectors and Demodulators116

3.7 Voltage Multipliers120

Voltage Doublers120

Voltage Triplers and Quadruplers121

3.8 Function Generators123

SUMMARY126

REFERENCES126

REVIEW QUESTIONS126

PROBLEMS127

CHAPTER 4 Introduction to Amplifiers133

4.1 Introduction133

4.2 Amplifier Characteristics134

Voltage Gain134

Current Gain135

Power Gain135

Logarithmic Gain135

Input and Output Resistances136

Amplifier Saturation136

Amplifier Nonlinearity138

4.3 Amplifier Types140

Voltage Amplifiers140

Current Amplifiers144

Transconductance Amplifiers148

Transimpedance Amplifiers150

4.4 PSpice/SPICE Amplifier Models151

Voltage Amplifier152

Current Amplifier152

Transconductance Amplifier152

Transimpedance Amplifier152

4.5 Gain Relationships152

Voltage and Current Amplifiers152

Voltage and Transconductance Amplifiers153

Voltage and Transimpedance Amplifiers153

4.6 Cascaded Amplifiers154

Cascaded Voltage Amplifiers154

Cascaded Current Amplifiers155

4.7 Introduction to Transistor Amplifiers156

Bipolar Junction Transistors156

Field-Effect Transistors161

4.8 Frequency Response of Amplifiers165

Low-Pass Characteristic166

High-Pass Characteristic168

Band-Pass Characteristic170

Gain and Bandwidth Relation171

4.9 Miller s Theorem172

4.10 Amplifier Design175

SUMMARY178

REVIEW QUESTIONS178

PROBLEMS179

CHAPTER 5 Amplifying Devices185

5.1 Introduction185

5.2 Bipolar Junction Transistors186

Input and Output Characteristics186

BJT Models188

dc Biasing of BJTs192

Biasing Circuit Design193

Common-Emitter Amplifiers196

Emitter Followers201

Common-Base Amplifiers205

Amplifiers with Active Loads209

5.3 Field-Effect Transistors214

Enhancement MOSFETs215

Depletion MOSFETs218

Junction Field-Effect Transistors221

FET Models223

Biasing of FETs227

Common-Source Amplifiers233

Common-Drain Amplifiers237

Common-Gate Amplifiers240

FET Amplifiers with Active Loads242

5.4 FETs versus BJTs245

5.5 Design of Amplifiers245

BJT Amplifier Design246

FET Amplifier Design249

SUMMARY252

REFERENCES252

REVIEW QUESTIONS252

PROBLEMS253

CHAPTER 6 Introduction to Operational Amplifiers267

6.1 Introduction267

6.2 Characteristics of Ideal Op-Amps268

6.3 Op-Amp PSpice/SPICE Models270

dc Linear Model271

ac Linear Model272

Nonlinear Macromodel273

6.4 Analysis of Ideal Op-Amp Circuits273

Noninverting Amplifiers274

Inverting Amplifiers277

Differential Amplifiers279

6.5 Op-Amp Applications281

Integrators281

Differentiators286

Instrumentation Amplifiers289

Noninverting Summing Amplifiers291

Inverting Summing Amplifiers292

Addition-Subtraction Amplifiers293

Optocoupler Drivers296

Photodetectors296

Voltage-Current Converters297

dc Voltmeteters298

dc Millivoltmeters298

Negative Impedance Converters299

Constant Current Sources300

Noninverting Integrators301

Inductance Simulators302

ac-Coupled Bootstrapped Voltage Followers303

6.6 Circuits with Op-Amps and Diodes304

Most Positive Signal Detectors305

Precision Peak Voltage Detectors305

Precision Half-Wave Rectifiers306

Precision Full-Wave Rectifiers307

Precision Clamping Circuits308

Fixed Voltage Limiters309

Adjustable Voltage Limiters310

Zener Voltage Limiters315

Hard Limiters316

6.7 Op-Amp Circuit Design319

SUMMARY321

REFERENCES321

REVIEW QUESTIONS321

PROBLEMS322

CHAPTER 7 Characteristics of Practical Op-Amps329

7.1 Introduction329

7.2Internal Structure of Op-Amps329

7.3 Parameters of Practical Op-Amps330

Input Resistance331

Output Resistance331

Input Capacitance331

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio331

Large-Signal Voltage Gain333

Rise Time333

Open-Loop Voltage Gain and Bandwidth334

Slew Rate338

Input Voltage Limits339

Output Voltage Limits339

Input Offset Voltage339

Input Biasing Current341

Input Offset Current343

Power Supply Rejection Ratio345

Thermal Drift345

7.4 Offset Voltage Adjustment347

7.5 Measurement of Offset Parameters349

SUMMARY350

REFERENCES350

REVIEW QUESTIONS350

PROBLEMS350

CHAPTER 8 Frequency Response of Amplifiers353

8.1 Introduction353

8.2 Frequency Model and Response of BJTs354

High-Frequency Model354

Small-Signal PSpice/SPICE Model356

Frequency Response of BJTs356

8.3 Frequency Model and Response of FETs360

Frequency Model and Response of JFETs360

Frequency Model and Response of MOSFETs361

Small-Signal PSpice/SPICE Model363

8.4 Bode Plots364

Low-Pass Amplifiers365

High-Pass Amplifiers366

Band-Pass Amplifiers367

8.5 Amplifier Frequency Response368

Low Cutoff Frequencies369

High Cutoff Frequencies370

8.6 Short-Circuit and Zero-Value Methods for Determining Break Frequencies374

Short-Circuit Method374

Zero-Value Method376

Mid-Band Voltage Gain378

8.7 Frequency Response of Common-Emitter BJT Amplifiers378

Low Cutoff Frequencies378

High Cutoff Frequencies380

8.8 Frequency Response of Common-Collector BJT Amplifiers384

Low Cutoff Frequencies385

High Cutoff Frequencies386

8.9 Frequency Response of Common-Base BJT Amplifiers388

Low Cutoff Frequencies388

High Cutoff Frequencies390

8.10 Frequency Response of FET Amplifiers391

Common-Source Amplifiers392

Common-Drain Amplifiers395

Common-Gate Amplifiers397

8.11 Multistage Amplifiers399

8.12 Frequency Response of Op-Amp Circuits406

Frequency Response of Op-Amp Integrators406

Frequency Response of Op-Amp Differentiators408

8.13 Designing for Frequency Response410

SUMMARY410

REFERENCES411

REVIEW QUESTIONS411

PROBLEMS411

CHAPTER 9 Active Filters421

9.1 Introduction421

9.2 Active versus Passive Filters421

9.3 Types of Active Filters422

9.4 The Biquadratic Function424

9.5 Butterworth Filters425

Butterworth Function for n=2426

Butterworth Function for n=3426

9.6 Low-Pass Filters427

First-Order Low-Pass Filters427

Second-Order Low-Pass Filters429

Butterworth Low-Pass Filters433

9.7 High-Pass Filters436

First-Order High-Pass Filters436

Second-Order High-Pass Filters437

Butterworth High-Pass Filters440

9.8 Band-Pass Filters442

Wide Band-Pass Filters443

Narrow Band-Pass Filters445

9.9 Band-Reject Filters448

Wide-Band-Reject Filters448

Narrow-Band-Reject Filters451

9.10 All-Pass Filters453

9.11 Switched Capacitor Filters454

Switched Capacitor Resistors454

Switched Capacitor Integrators456

Universal Switched Capacitor Filters456

9.12 Filter Design Guidelines458

SUMMARY459

REFERENCFS459

REVIEW QUESTIONS459

PROBLEMS460

CHAPTER 10 Feedback Amplifiers463

10.1 Introduction463

10.2 Feedback464

10.3 Feedback Analysis465

Gain Sensitivity467

Feedback Factor Sensitivity467

Frequency Response468

Distortion470

10.4 Feedback Topologies472

10.5 Analysis of Feedback Amplifiers474

10.6 Series-Shunt Feedback476

Analysis of an Ideal Series-Shunt Feedback Network477

Analysis of a Practical Series-Shunt Feedback Network479

10.7 Series-Series Feedback485

Analysis of an Ideal Series-Series Feedback Network486

Analysis of a Practical Series-Series Feedback Network487

10.8 Shunt-Shunt Feedback493

Analysis of an Ideal Shunt-Shunt Feedback Network494

Analysis of a Practical Shunt-Shunt Feedback Network496

10.9 Shunt-Series Feedback502

Analysis of an Ideal Shunt-Series Feedback Network503

Analysis of a Practical Shunt-Series Feedback Network503

10.10 Feedback Circuit Design506

10.11 Stability Analysis511

Poles and Instability512

Nyquist Stability Criterion514

Relative Stability516

Effects of Phase Margin517

Stability Using Bode Plots518

10.12 Compensation Techniques521

Addition of a Dominant Pole521

Changing the Dominant Pole523

Miller Compensation and Pole Splitting524

Modification of the Feedback Path526

SUMMARY529

REFERENCES530

REVIEW QUESTIONS530

PROBLEMS531

CHAPTER 11 Oscillators541

11.1 Introduction541

11.2 Principles of Oscillators542

Frequency Stability544

Amplitude Stability545

11.3 Phase-Shift Oscillators545

11.4 Quadrature Oscillators549

111.5 Three-Phase Oscillators551

11.6 Wien-Bridge Oscillators552

11.7 Colpitts Oscillators556

11.8 Hartley Oscillators562

11.9 Crystal Oscillators564

11.10 Active-Filter Tuned Oscillators568

11.11 Design of Oscillators571

SUMMARY572

REFERENCES572

REVIEW QUESTIONS572

PROBLEMS573

CHAPTER 12 Introduction to Digital Electronics577

12.1 Introduction577

12.2 Logic States577

12.3 Logic Gates578

12.4 Performance Parameters of Logic Gates580

Voltage Transfer Characteristic(VTC)580

Noise Margins581

Fan-Out and Fan-In582

Propagation Delay584

Power Dissipation585

Delay-Power Product587

12.5 NMOS Inverters588

NMOS Inverter with Enhancement Load588

NMOS Inverter with Depletion Load595

Comparison of NMOS Inverters601

12.6 NMOS Logic Circuits602

NMOS Transmission Gates602

NMOS NOR Gates602

NMOS NAND Gates603

12.7 CMOS Inverters603

12.8 CMOS Logic Circuits608

CMOS Transmission Gates608

CMOS NOR and NAND Gates610

CMOS Families611

12.9 Comparison of CMOS and NMOS Gates611

12.10 BJT Inverters612

Voltage Transfer Characteristic(VTC)612

Switching Characteristics613

12.11 Transistor-Transistor Logic(TTL) Gates617

Standard TTL Gates618

High-Speed TTL NAND Gates624

Schottky TTL NAND Gates628

12.12 Emitter-Coupled Logic(ECL)OR/NOR Gates630

12.13 BiCMOS Inverters636

Propagation Delay637

12.14 Interfacing of Logic Gates638

TTL Driving CMOS639

CMOS Driving TTL641

12.15 Comparison of Logic Gates641

12.16 Design of Logic Circuits643

SUMMARY645

REFERENCES645

REVIEW QUESTIONS645

PROBLEMS646

CHAPTER 13 Active Sources and Differential Amplifiers655

13.1 Introduction655

13.2 Internal Structure of Differential Amplifiers656

13.3 BJT Current Sources657

Basic Current Source657

Modified Basic Current Source659

Widlar Current Source661

Cascode Current Source664

Wilson Current Source665

Multiple Current Sources669

13.4 JFET Current Sources670

13.5 MOSFET Current Sources671

Basic Current Source671

Multiple Current Sources674

Cascode Current Source674

Wilson Current Source675

13.6 Design of Active Current Sources676

13.7 Active Voltage Sources676

Impedance Transformation677

Negative Feedback677

Negative Feedback and Impedance Transformation678

13.8 Characteristics of Differential Amplifiers679

13.9 BJT Differential Amplifiers681

dc Transfer Characteristics681

Small-Signal Analysis683

13.10 BJT Differential Amplifiers with Active Loads689

Small-Signal Analysis690

Differential Amplifier with Modified Current Mirror692

Cascode Differential Amplifier693

13.11 JEET Differential Amplifiers695

JEET Differential Pair695

JEET Differential Pair with Active Load702

13.12 MOS Differential Amplifiers702

NMOS Differential Pair703

MOS Differential Pair with Active Load705

13.13 BiCMOS Differential Amplifiers708

BJT versus CMOS Amplifiers708

BiCMOS Amplifiers709

Cascode BiCMOS Amplifiers710

13.14 Frequency Response of Differential Amplifiers713

13.15 Design of Differential Amplifiers715

SUMMARY715

REFERENCES715

REVIEW QUESTIONS715

PROBLEMS716

CHAPTER 14 Power Amplifiers723

14.1 Introduction723

14.2 Classification of Power Amplifiers724

14.3 Emitter Followers725

Transfer Characteristic726

Signal Waveforms726

Output Power and Efficiency726

14.4 Class A Amplifiers729

Basic Common-Emitter Amplifier729

Common-Emitter Amplifiers732

Transformer-Coupled Load Amplifier733

14.5 Class B Push-Pull Amplifiers735

Complementary Push-Pull Amplifiers735

Transformer-Coupled Load Push-Pull Amplifier740

14.6 Complementary Class AB Push-Pull Amplifiers744

Transfer Characteristie744

Output Power and Efficiency745

Biasing with Diodes745

Biasing with Diodes and an Active Current Source746

Biasing with a VBE Multiplier749

14.7 Quasi-Complementary Class AB Push-Pull Amplifiers752

14.8 Transformer-Coupled Class AB Push-Pull Amplifiers753

14.9 Short-Circuit and Thermal Protection754

Short-Circuit Protection755

Thermal Protection755

14.10 Power Op-Amps756

IC Power Amplifiers756

Bridge Amplifier759

14.11 Thermal Considerations760

Thermal Resistance760

Heat Sink and Heat Flow760

Power Dissipation Versus Temperature761

14.12 Design of Power Amplifiers763

SUMMARY763

REFERENCES763

REVIEW QUESTIONS763

PROBLEMS764

CHAPTER 15 Operational Amplifiers767

15.1 Introduction767

15.2 Internal Structure of Op-Amps767

15.3 Op-Amp Parameters768

Input Biasing Current769

Input Offset Current769

Input Offset Voltage and Thermal Voltage Drift769

Common Mode Rejection Ratio771

Input Resistance772

Output Resistance775

Frequency Response775

Slew Rate778

15.4 JFET Op-Amps779

JFET Op-Amp LH0022780

JFET Op-Amp LF411781

JFET Op-Amp LH0062784

JFET Op-Amp LH0032785

15.5 CMOS Op-Amps787

CMOS Op-Amp MC14573787

CMOS Op-Amp TLC1078790

15.6 BiCMOS Op-Amps792

BiCMOS Op-Amp CA3130792

BiCMOS Op-Amp CA3140793

15.7 BJT Op-Amps795

BJT Op-Amp LM124795

BJT Op-Amp LM741796

15.8 Analysis of the LM741 Op-Amp798

dc Analysis798

Small-Signal ac Analysis803

Analysis of Frequency Response811

Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit812

15.9 Design of Op-Amps812

SUMMARY813

REFERENCES813

REVIEW QUESTIONS814

PROBLEMS814

CHAPTER 16 Integrated Analog Circuits and Appplications817

16.1 Introduction817

16.2 Comparators817

Comparators versus Op-Amps818

Output-Side Connection818

Threshold Comparators819

16.3 Zero-Crossing Detectors821

16.4 Schmitt Triggers822

Inverting Schmitt Trigger822

Noninverting Schmitt Trigger825

Schmitt Trigger with Reference Voltage826

Effects of Hysteresis on the Output Voltage827

16.5 Square-Wave Generators829

16.6 Triangular-Wave Generators833

16.7 Sawtooth-Wave Generators836

16.8 Voltage-Controlled Oscillators839

Charging Mode840

Discharging Mode840

Circuit Implementation840

The NE/SE-566 VCO842

16.9 The 555 Timer844

Functional Block Diagram844

Monostable Multivibrator845

Applications of Monostable Multivibrators847

Astable Multivibrator849

Applications of Astable Multivibrators851

16.10 Phase-Lock Loops855

Phase Detector856

Integrated Circuit PLL857

Applications of the 565 PLL859

16.11 Voltage-to-Frequency and Frequency-to-Voltage Converters862

V/F Converter863

F/V Converter867

16.12 Sample-and-Hold Circuits870

Sample-and-Hold Op-Amp Circuits871

Sample-and-Hold ICs872

16.13 Digital-to-Analog Converters873

Weighted-Resistor D/A Converter873

R-2R Ladder Network D/A Converter874

IC D/A Converters876

16.14 Analog-to-Digital Converters879

Successive Approximation A/D Converter879

IC A/D Converters881

16.15 Circuit Design Using Analog ICS883

SUMMARY883

REFERENCES883

REVIEW QUESTIONS884

PROBLEMS885

APPENDIXES887

Appendix A:Introduction to PSpice887

Appendix B:Review of Basic Circuits913

Appendix C:Low-Frequency Hybrid BJT Model953

Appendix D:Ebers-Moll Model of Bipolar Junction Transistors957

Appendix E:Passive Components963

Appendix F:Design Problems969

Answers to Selected Exercises971

Index977

About the Author991